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Pycnoscelus

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      ITIS Name

      Pycnoscelus

      Submitted by Scratchpad Team on Thu, 03/06/2010 - 1:44pm
      • 166 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

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      Cockroaches: An Amazing Diversity

      By George Beccaloni (Curator of cockroaches etc, The Natural History Museum, London)






      Eucorydia aenea dasytoides fom China. Copyright Guo-Fang Jiang.Elliptorhina javanica. Male. Copyright George Beccaloni.Blattellid cockroach from Madagascar. Copyright George Beccaloni.
      Cockroaches (order Blattodea) are a group of largely omnivorous insects with incomplete metamorphosis which together with the carnivorous praying mantids (order Mantodea) form the superorder Dictyoptera. It is thought that cockroaches split from the common ancestor they shared with the mantids during the Lower Cretaceous about 140 million years ago. The cockroach-like species ("roachoids") with external ovipositors (egg laying tubes) which existed before this split, originated as far back as the Upper Carboniferous period some 315 million years ago. Recent studies (e.g., Inward, Beccaloni & Eggleton, 2007; Eggleton, Beccaloni & Inward, 2007) have shown that the termites are actually a lineage of cockroaches (epifamily Termitoidae) and not a separate order of insects as previously thought. Termites are most closely related to the wood-feeding cockroaches of the genus Cryptocercus, with which they share many structural characters and behavioural traits. Although termites are cockroaches we are only concerned here with the six families of 'true' cockroaches: Nocticolidae, Polyphagidae, Blattidae, Cryptocercidae, Blattellidae and Blaberidae.






      Evolutionary Relationships of Cockroaches from Eggleton, Beccaloni & Inward, 2007
      Evolutionary Relationships of Cockroaches from Eggleton, Beccaloni & Inward, 2007

      Cockroach diversity


      To date approximately 4,500 cockroach species have been named and there are probably at least twice this number still to be discovered worldwide. Although most species are found in the tropics a few occur in temperate regions. There are about 130 native European cockroaches and, perhaps surprisingly, new species are still being discovered in this well studied region.


      Regrettably most people seem to regard all cockroaches as offensive and destructive vermin. However, this reputation is deserved by less than 30 species (< 1% of the total) - the vast majority being secretive insects which never associate with man. As a group cockroaches exhibit a remarkable diversity of size, form, coloration and behaviour and occupy a very wide range of habitats from caves to mountains, from rainforests to deserts.








      Sand-burrowing desert cockroach of family Polyphagidae, from dunes of the western USA. Copyright Marshal Hedin.


      Some tropical cockroaches are thought to live only in the nests of social insects and there are even amphibious species which dive under water when threatened. Although most cockroaches are probably omnivorous, the ability to feed exclusively on rotting wood has evolved at least three separate times: in the ancestor of Cryptocercus and the termites; in the blaberid subfamily Panesthiinae; and in the blaberid Parasphaeria boleiriana.









      Gromphadorhina grandidieri. Male. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Adult male Gromphadorhina grandidieri from southern Madagascar.


      Many cockroach species are wingless or have reduced wings and some (e.g. the Cuban burrowing cockroach Byrsotria fumigata) have fully winged males and females with greatly reduced wings. Asian and Australasian Panesthia species, which burrow in decaying wood, have well developed wings when they first become adults, but these soon break off about one third of the way down their length, presumably once the insects have dispersed. Many cockroaches are sexually dimorphic, for example the Madagascan hissing cockroaches (Gromphadorhina and their relatives) which are often kept as pets. The males of these cockroaches have well developed 'horns' on their pronota (the plate covering the head) which they use to fight rival males - the largest individual usually emerging as the victor.








      Lucihormetica fenestrata. Male. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Adult male Lucihormetica fenestrata from Brazil.


      The males of one South American cockroach, Lucihormetica fenestrata, have raised yellowish tubercles on their pronota which are bioluminescent and may play a role in courtship. It is currently unknown how this bioluminescence is produced, but one suggestion is that the spongy material inside the tubercles harbours bioluminescent fungi or bacteria which the cockroach may acquire from the rotting wood in which it lives. Related species have similar tubercles which may also emit light.


      The world's heaviest cockroach is the wingless Australian rhinoceros cockroach (Macropanesthia rhinoceros), which weighs up to 33.5 grams and has a body length of up to 80 mm. It has one of the most complex life-histories of all cockroaches and, with a lifespan of more than 10 years, it is among the longest lived of all insects. The species with the greatest wingspan is the Central and South American Megaloblatta blaberoides, which has a spread of up to 185 mm. The smallest is the North American Attaphila fungicola, which measures less than 3 mm long and lives in the nests of leafcutter ants.


       


       


       








      Cockroaches largest and smallest. Copyright Natural History Museum, London
      Some of the largest & smallest cockroaches. Megaloblatta longipennis (top), Attaphila bergi (left) and Macropanesthia rhinoceros (right).

      Reproductive biology


      Cockroaches are more diverse in their reproductive biology than probably any other order of insects. One species, Pycnoscelus surinamensis, is parthenogenic (the ability to reproduce without mating), but males are found in all other species which have been studied.









      Archiblatta hoeveni ootheca. Copyright George Beccaloni


      Ootheca of Archiblatta hoeveni from Malaysia.


      Species in the families Nocticolidae, Polyphagidae, Blattidae, Cryptocercidae and most Blattellidae, produce hardened oothecae (egg cases) which are dropped on the ground, buried, or attached to substrate using a salivary cement. In contrast, species in the family Blaberidae plus a few Blattellidae, have membranous oothecae which are incubated in a brood sac within the female's body until the eggs hatch. One blaberid, Diploptera punctata, has a greatly reduced oothecal membrane which does not cover the eggs. Remarkably this species produces a nutritious 'milk' from the wall of the brood sac on which the developing embryos feed. Species in the blaberid subfamily Geoscapheinae have lost the oothecal membrane altogether and the eggs are deposited straight into the brood sac. These cockroaches exhibit a high level of parental care. The nymphs live with the mother in her burrow until they are about half grown and the female provides food for them by pulling dead leaves and other vegetation into the burrow.


       


       









      Epilamprine cockroach with young. Copyright Natasha Mhatre Epilamprine cockroach with young. Copyright Natasha Mhatre

      Female epilamprine cockroach from India carrying young.

      The most unusual parental care is exhibited by species in the blaberid subfamilies Epilamprinae and Perisphaerinae. Thorax porcellana, a species of the former subfamily from India, carries its young (i.e. nymphs) under its domed forewings for their first two instars. The nymphs obtain liquid food from specialized pores on the upper surface of their mother's abdomen and they also pierce her cuticle with their specialized sharp mandibles and feed on her blood (haemolymph)! Species of the genus Perisphaerus (Perisphaerinae) from South-East Asia and Australasia have a somewhat similar mother-offspring relationship. When the nymphs are born they are white, blind and have strange tube-like mouthparts, which are unique amongst cockroaches. The mother has four apertures at the bases of her mid- and hind legs into which the mouthparts of the nymphs exactly fit and the nymphs are believed to suck up a nutrient 'milk' from these pores. The nymphs cling beneath the mother's body for the first two instars and only in the third instar do they develop normal eyes and body pigmentation.







      Perisphaerus sp. with young. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Perisphaerus sp. from Malaysia with well developed young, which have recently left the underside of the mother.


      Predator defences








      Perisphaerus sp. Female. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Female Perisphaerus sp. from Malaysia rolled up into a defensive ball.


      Cockroaches have evolved a wide range of strategies to avoid being eaten by predators. Most, like the leaf green Panchlora species, rely on camouflage, whilst a few have warning coloration or mimic distasteful insects (e.g. Prosoplecta from South-East Asia, which mimic ladybird beetles, Coccinellidae). Cockroaches of the genus Perisphaerus roll up into a ball like pill millipedes or woodlice when molested, but most depend on speed and agility to escape. One currently unnamed South African species of Blattellidae has greatly enlarged hind legs which enable it to jump like a grasshopper. This species hops between grass stalks and apparently specialises in eating bird droppings.


      A few cockroach species possess active defence mechanisms. These include spraying repellent fluid from abdominal glands like Diploptera punctata or Archiblatta hoeveni and producing startling noises by expelling air rapidly through abdominal spiracles, as in the Madagascan hissing cockroaches (Gromphadorhina and their relatives).


       








      Archiblatta hoeveni. Female. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Adult female Archiblatta hoeveni from Malaysia.


      Studying cockroaches


      Apart from extensive studies of the major pest species very little work has been done on cockroaches as a whole and they remain relatively neglected by both amateur and professional entomologists alike. The majority of species are easy to keep and breed in captivity and they don't require a constant supply of fresh leaves like stick-insects or live-foods like praying mantids. Why don't you start keeping and studying them? There is still a lot to discover!


      References




      • Inward, D., Beccaloni, G. & Eggleton, P. 2007. Death of an order: a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study confirms that termites are eusocial cockroaches. Biology Letters 3(3): 331-335 [Published online 5 April 2007. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0102]


      • Eggleton, P., Beccaloni, G. & Inward, D. 2007. Invited reply: Response to Lo et al. Biology Letters 3(5): 564-565 [Published online 14 August 2007. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0367]





      Ectobius lapponicus from UK. Copyright George_BeccaloniLeozehntnera maxima. Male. Copyright George_Beccaloni

      Cockroach Culture Techniques: A Bibliography

      By Darren Mann (Curatorial Officer, Hope Entomological Collections, Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford, UK)

      The papers on cockroach rearing techniques listed by Bodenstein & Fales (1969) are now somewhat out of date, although many of the works cited are still useful. The bibliography provided here includes some of the more important works listed by these authors and updates their list to the end of 2004, with papers considered to contain valuable culturing techniques for cockroaches.

      • Alsop, D. W. 1990. Cockroach culturing. pp. 13-32. In: Huber, I., Masler, E. P. & Rao, B. R. (Eds). Cockroaches as Models for Neurobiology: Applications in Biomedical Research, Volume I. CRC Press Inc., Florida.
      • Anon. 1970. SABS 457 Rearing and Handling the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana L. ) for the Evaluation of Pesticides (Metric Units). Council of the South African Bureau of Standards. 3pp.
      • Anon. 1970. SABS 458 Rearing and Handling the German cockroach (Blattella germanica L. ) for the Evaluation of Pesticides (Metric Units). Council of the South African Bureau of Standards. 3pp.
      • Anon. 1980. How to grow your own cockroaches. Pest Control, 48(7): 30-34.
      • Appel, A. G., Van-Dyke, A. M. & Rust, M. K. 1983. A technique for rearing and some notes on the biology of a desert sand cockroach Arenivaga investigata (Dictyoptera: Polyphagidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 85(3): 598-600.
      • Banks, W. M. 1969. Observations on the rearing and maintenance of Blaberus giganteus (Orthoptera: Blaberidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 62(6): 1211-1312.
      • Barson, G. & Renn, N. 1983. Hatching from oothecae of the German cockroach (Blattella germanica) under laboratory culture conditions and after premature removal. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 34(2): 179-185.
      • Becker, J. C. 1970. Hiereoblatta cassidea (Esch., 1822) (Blaberidae, Dictyoptera). Revista Brasileira de Entomologica, 14(9): 63-71.
      • Bell, W. J. 1981. The Laboratory Cockroach. Chapman & Hall, London. 161pp.
      • Benson, E. P. & Huber, I. 1989. Oviposition behaviour and site preference of the brown banded cockroach, Supella longipalpa (Fab. ) (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 24(1): 84-91.
      • Benschoter, C. A. & Wrenn, R. T. 1972. Germ-free techniques for establishment and maintenance of a colony of aseptic German cockroaches. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 65(3): 641-644.
      • Bodenstein, O. F. & Fales, J. H. 1969. A list of references on the rearing of cockroaches for experimental purposes. Pest Control, 37(7): 30-34.
      • Bottimer, L. J. 1945. Roach rearing and testing. Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, N. Y., 21(12): 151-157.
      • Boyer, S. & Rivault, C. 2004. Life history traits of cockroaches in sugar-cane fields in La Réunion (Blattodea: Blattellidae & Blaberidae). Oriental Insects, 38: 373-388.
      • Brady, U. E. & Sternburg, J. 1964. Influence of anaesthesia on the toxicity of TEPP and SD-3562. Journal of Economic Entomology, 57(1): 173-174.
      • Bragg, P. E. 1997. Rearing aquatic cockroaches. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society, 56: 117-121.
      • Bragg, P. E. 1997. An Introduction to Rearing Cockroaches. Published by the author, Ilkeston, U. K. 15pp.
      • Brooks, M. A. 1957. Growth retarding effect of carbon dioxide anaesthesia on the German cockroach. Journal of Insect Physiology, 1(1): 76-84.
      • Brooks, M. A. 1965. The effects of repeated anaesthesia on the biology of Blattella germanica (L.) Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 8: 39-48.
      • Brooks, M. A. & Richards, A. G. 1955. Intracellular symbiosis in cockroaches. I. production of aposymbiotic cockroaches. Biologist Bulletin, 109(1): 22-39.
      • Brooks, M. A. & Richards, A. G. 1956. Intracellular symbiosis in cockroaches. III. Re-infection of aposymbiotic cockroaches with symbionts. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 132(3): 447-465.
      • Brown, V. K. 1973. Collection and culture of field-dwelling cockroaches for experimental purposes. Entomologist, 106: 114-117.
      • Brown, V. K. 1973. The over-wintering stages of Ectobius lapponicus (L. ) (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Journal of Entomology, Ser. A., 48(1): 11-24.
      • Brown, V. K. & Rider, L. 1974. Improved technique for rearing over-wintering cockroach nymphs. Entomologist's Gazette, 25: 44.
      • Brues, C. T. & Dunn, R. C. 1945. The effect of penicillin and certain sulphur drugs on the intracellular bacteroids of the cockroach. Science, 101(2622): 336-337.
      • Busvine, J. R. 1971. A Critical Review of the Techniques for Testing Insecticides. Commonwealth Agriculture Bureaux. 333pp.
      • Cameron, E. 1953. Some new and improved methods for demonstrating the cockroach. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London, Ser. A., 28(4-6): 41-44.
      • Chon, T. S. & Park, Y. S. 1993. Quantitative observation in the behavior of the smoky brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Serville): Presence at important micro-habitats of rearing cages in the laboratory. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology, 32(3): 354-371.
      • Clarke, P. S. 1973. Cockroach Culture. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society, 32: 151-53.
      • Clayton, R. B. 1959. A simplified method for the culture of Blattella germanica under aseptic conditions. Nature (London), 184(4693): 1166-1167.
      • Cochran, D. G. 1979. A method for rearing the sand cockroach, Arenivaga tonkowa (Dictyoptera: Polyphagidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 81(4): 580-582.
      • Cornwell, P. B. 1968. The Cockroach. Vol. 1, Hutchinson and Co., London. 391pp.
      • Cornwell, P. B. 1976. The Cockroach. Vol. 2. Associated Business Programmes, London. 557pp.
      • Cummings, E. C. & Menn, J. J. 1946. Notes on amphibious cockroaches from the republic of Panama. Entomological News, 57(7): 171-172.
      • Cummings, E. C. & Menn, J. J. 1959. An American cockroach rearing cage. Journal of Economic Entomology, 52: 1227-1228.
      • Dahm, P. A. 1955. A convenient method for rearing large cockroaches. Journal of Economic Entomology, 48: 480-482.
      • Davis, W. T. 1930. Rearing the young of the viviparous cockroach, Panchlora cubensis. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 38(2): 85-88.
      • Dold, J. 1964. How to trap and rear roaches for display and resistance testing. Pest Control, 32: 18-20.
      • Edmunds, L. R. 1953. Collecting and culturing native wood cockroaches in Ohio, with some additional notes on their parasites. Entomological News, 64: 225-230.
      • Ebeling, W. & Wagner, R. E. 1963. Teflon as barrier to insects. Journal of Economic Entomology, 56(5): 715-716.
      • Field, G., Savage, L. B. & Dupleslisis, R. J. 1966. Note on the cockroach mite Pimeliaphilus cunliffei (Acarina: Pterygosomidae) infesting oriental, German and American cockroaches. Journal of Economic Entomology, 59(6): 1532.
      • Fischer, R. W. & Jursic, F. 1958. Rearing houseflies and roaches for physiological research. The Canadian Entomologist, 90: 1-7.
      • Fisk, F. W. 1951. Use of a specific mite control in roach and mouse culture. Journal of Economic Entomology, 44: 1016.
      • Gangwere, S. K. 1960. The feeding and culturing of Orthoptera in the laboratory. Entomological News, 71(1-2): 37-45.
      • Gier, H. T. 1947. Growth rate in the cockroach Periplaneta americana (L. ). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 40: 303-317.
      • Gilbert, I. H. 1964. Laboratory rearing of cockroaches, bedbugs, human lice and fleas. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 31: 561-563.
      • Glaser, R. A. 1930. On the isolation, cultivation and classification of the so-called intracellular "symbionts" or "rickettsia" of Periplaneta americana (L. ). Journal of Experimental Medicine, 51: 59-81.
      • Gould, G. E. 1941. Effect of temperature upon the development of cockroaches. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, 50: 1-15.
      • Gould, G. E. & Deay, H. O. 1938. The biology of the American cockroach. Annals of the American Entomological Society, 31: 289-498.
      • Grady, A. G. 1928. Studies in breeding insects throughout the year for insecticide tests II. Roaches, clothes moths and weevils. Journal of Economic Entomology, 21(4): 608-612.
      • Griffiths, J. T. & Tauber, O. E. 1942. Fecundity, longevity and parthenogenesis of the American roach, Periplaneta americana (L. ). Physiological Zoology, 15: 196-209.
      • Guthrie, D. M. & Tindall, A. R. 1968. The Biology of the Cockroach. St. Martin's Press, New York. 408pp.
      • Haskins, K. P. F. 1962. A new system for rearing the American cockroach. Entomologist, 95: 27-29.
      • Hausman, S. A. 1955. Raising cockroaches in the laboratory. Turtox News, 33(1): 36.
      • Haydak, M. H. 1936. A food for rearing laboratory animals. Journal of Economic Entomology, 29: 1026.
      • Heal, R. E. 1948. Rearing methods for German and American cockroaches. Journal of Economic Entomology, 41: 329-330.
      • Heimpel, A. M. & West, A. S. 1959. Notes on the pathogenicity of Serratia marcescens Bizio for the cockroach, Blattella germanica (L. ). Physiological Zoology, 11: 89-103.
      • House, H. L. 1949. Nutritional studies with Blattella germanica (L. ) reared under aseptic conditions. II. A chemically defined diet. Canadian Entomologist, 81(5): 105-112.
      • House, H. L. 1949. Nutritional studies with Blattella germanica (L. ) reared under aseptic conditions. III. Five essential amino acids. Canadian Entomologist, 81(6): 133-139.
      • House, H. L. & Patton, R. L. 1949. Nutritional studies with Blattella germanica (L. ) reared under aseptic conditions. I. Equipment and technique. Canadian Entomologist, 81(4): 94-100.
      • Iglisch, I. & Moller, L. 1990. Erhaltungszucht mit Uberschuss von Blatta orientalis (Blattariae, Blattidae). Anzeiger fuer Schaedlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz, 63(2): 25-32.
      • Kapanadze, E. I. 1971. The biology of a Turkestan cockroach, Shelfordella tartara Sauss. in the insectary. Meditsinskaya Parazitologiya i Parazitarnye Bolezni, 40(5): 595-600.
      • Kelley, J. M. 1929. Living plants and animals for the biology laboratory the common cockroach. Turtox News, 7(11): 85.
      • King, E. G. & Leppla, N. C. (Eds). 1984. Advances and Challenges in Insect Rearing. Agricultural Research Service (Southern Region), U. S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA. xvi + 306pp.
      • Koehler, P. G., Strong, C. A. & Patterson, R. S. 1994. Rearing improvements for the German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 31(5): 704-710.
      • Komiyama, M. & Ogata, K. 1981. Observations on the life history of the Japanese cockroach Periplaneta japonica under outdoor conditions. Medical Entomology and Zoology, 32(2): 111-115.
      • Koo, S. H., Lee, H. P., Hong, H. K. & Lee, C. S. 1984. The life history of the smoky-brown cockroach Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville. Korean Journal of Entomology, 14(1): 81-86.
      • Koshy, T. & Mallik, D. 1968. An improved method for rearing and maintaining large colonies of the American cockroach in the laboratory. Journal of Economic Entomology, 61(6): 1748-1750.
      • Ma, A. N. & Wang, H. P. 2000. Manufacture of an automatic layer-dividing machine for the stereoscopic breeding of Eupolyphaga sinensis. Chinese Journal of Zoology, 35(1): 31-33.
      • McCay, C. M. & Melampy, R. M. 1937. Family Blattidae. Care and rearing of Blattella germanica (L. ). pp. 283-284. In: Galstoff et al., 1937, Culture Methods for Invertebrate Animals. Comstock Publishing Company, New York.
      • Manning, G. R. 1997. Rearing the pale-bordered field cockroach, Pseudomops septentrionalis Hebard (Blattellidae). pp. 60-61. In: Invertebrates in Captivity: Conference Proceedings, July 31-August 3, 1997. Sonoran Arthropod Studies Institute. Tucson, Arizona.
      • Matthiesen, F. A. 1988. Pycnoscelus surinamensis L.: uma fonte permanente de alimento para escorpioes mantidos em cativeiro (Dictyoptera, Panchloridae). Revista de Agricultura (Piracicaba), 63(3): 249-252.
      • Mehrota, O. N., Petri, S. L. & Agarwal, P. N. 1937. A laboratory technique of culturing cockroaches. Indian Journal of Entomology, 27(3): 358-360.
      • Mills, R. R. 1966. A cockroach rearing cage designed for the collection of oothecae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 59(2): 490.
      • Mira, A. & Raubenheimer, D. 2002. Divergent nutrition-related adaptations in two cockroach populations inhabiting different environments. Physiological Entomology, 27(4): 330-339.
      • Mitsuhashi, J. 2001. Development of highly nutritive culture media. In-vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology Animal, 37(6): 330-337.
      • Morgan, N. D. 1985. Blattidae. pp. 321-328. In: Singh, P. & Moore, R. F. (Eds). Handbook of Insect Rearing. Volume 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
      • Noland, J. L. 1956. An improved method for rearing cockroaches. Journal of Economic Entomology, 49: 411-412.
      • Noland, J. L., Lilly, J. H. & Bauman, C. A. 1949. A laboratory method for rearing cockroaches, and its application to dietary studies on the German roach. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 42(1) 63-70.
      • Nutting, W. L. 1953. Giant cockroaches of the genus Blaberus as laboratory animals. Turtox News, 31(8): 134-137.
      • Pawlik, J. 1966. Control of the nematode Leidynema appendiculata (Leidy) in laboratory cultures of the American cockroach. Journal of Economic Entomology, 59(2): 468-469.
      • Park, Y. C. & Choe, J. C. 2003. Life history and population dynamics of Korean woodroach (Cryptocercus kyebangensis) populations. Korean Journal of Biological Sciences, 7(2): 111-117.
      • Pope, P. 1953. Studies of the life histories of some Queensland Blattidae (Orthoptera). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 63(2): 23-46.
      • Price, R. G. & Howell, D. E. 1969. Population changes in four species of cockroach maintained together in small containers. Journal of Economic Entomology, 62(5): 1164-1165.
      • Rau, P. 1940. The life history of the wood-roach Parcoblatta pennyslyvanica Degeer (Orthoptera: Blattidae). Entomological News, 51(1): 4-9
      • Rau, P. 1940. The life history of the wood-roach Parcoblatta pennyslyvanica Degeer (Orthoptera: Blattidae). Entomological News, 51(2): 33-35.
      • Rochford, Rev. P. J. 1957. A breeding observation chamber for the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana). School Science Review, 38: 450-452.
      • Rogez, L. 1996. Elevage de blattes du Perou. Blabera fusca. Revue de l'Association Roussillonnaise d'Entomologie, 5(3): 77.
      • Rogez, L. 1996. Elevage de blattes souffleuses Gromphadorhina portentosa. Revue de l'Association Roussillonaise d'Entomologie, 5(1): 8.
      • Roth, L. M. 1967. Water changes in cockroach Oothecae in relation to the evolution of ovoviviparity and viviparity. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 60(5): 928-946.
      • Roth, L. M. 1968. Reproduction of some poorly known species of Blattaria. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 61(3): 572-579.
      • Roth, L. M. & Willis, E. R. 1954. The reproduction of cockroaches. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 122(12): 1-49.
      • Roth, L. M. & Willis, E. R. 1956. Parthenogenesis in cockroaches. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 49: 195-204.
      • Rust, M. K. & Appel, A. G. 1985. Intra- and Inter-specific aggregation in some nymphal Blattellid cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 78: 107-10.
      • Scharrer, B. 1951. The woodroach. Scientific American, 185(6): 58-62.
      • Sieburth, J. F. & Bonsall, M. G. 1951. A simplified biological assay method using the cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Linn.), for protein utilization. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 44(3): 463-468.
      • Singh, P. 1977. Artificial Diets for Insects, Mites and Spiders. IFI/Plenum Data Company. 594pp.
      • Smittle, B. J. 1966. Cockroaches. pp. 227-240. In: Smith, C. N. (Ed. ). Insect Colonisation and Mass Production. Academic Press.
      • Takagi, M. . 1978. Ecological studies on the smoky-brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa S. III. Rearing experiments on the adult emergence, longevity, oviposition, and the development of the egg stage outdoors in Tsu, Mie Prefecture. Mie Medical Journal, 28(1): 9-19.
      • Takagi, M. 1978. Ecological studies on the smoky-brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa S. 2. A rearing experiment on the nymphal development outdoors in Tsu, Mie Prefecture. Mie Medical Journal, 27(3): 85-92.
      • Takagi, M. 1978. Ecological studies on the smoky-brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa S. 3. Rearing experiments on the adult emergence, longevity, oviposition, and the development of the egg stage outdoors in Tsu, Mie Prefecture. Mie Medical Journal, 28(1): 9-19.
      • Tinnesen, K. 2003. Opdraet af foderdyr - hvor svaert kan det vaere?! [Rearing insects for food - how difficult can it be?!] Nordisk Herpetologisk Forening, 46(3): 89-95.
      • Tropek, R. 2003. Chov svabu Nauphoeta cinerea jako krmiva. [Breeding the cockroach Nauphoeta cinerea as food for other animals]. Akvarium Terarium, 46(3): 66-69.
      • Tsuji, H. & Mizuno, T. 1971. Laboratory use of first instar nymphs of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana). Japanese Journal of Sanitary Zoology, 22(1): 240-247.
      • Vantomme, G. 1991. [Feeding: Blaptica dubia Argentinean wood cockroach]. Aquariumwereld, 44(11): 248.
      • Wang, Q. & Zhou, J. 1989. A new method for rearing small population of Blattella germanica. Entomological Knowledge, 26(2): 105-106.
      • Wagner, R. E., Ebeling, W. & Clark, W. R. 1964. An electric barrier for confining cockroaches in large rearing or field cans. Journal of Economic Entomology, 57: 1007-1009.
      • Washburn, F. L. 1913. A successful trap for cockroaches. Journal of Economic Entomology, 6: 237-29.
      • Webb, A. & Webb, F. 1987. Breeding Live Food for Reptiles and Tarantulas. Fitzgerald Publications, London. 16pp.
      • Wharton, D. R. A., Lola, J. E., & Wharton, M. L. 1967. Population density, survival, growth and development of the American cockroach. Journal of Insect Physiology, 13: 669-716.
      • Wharton, D. R. A., Lola, J. E. & Wharton, M. L. 1968. Growth factors and population density in the American cockroach Periplaneta americana. Journal of Insect Physiology, 14(5): 637-653.
      • Whitlaw, J. T. & Smith, L. W. 1964. Equipment for trapping and rearing the American cockroach Perplaneta americana. Journal of Economic Entomology, 57(1): 164-165.
      • Wileyto, E. P. & Boush, G. M. 1983. A new method for individually rearing the German cockroach (Orthoptera: Blattellidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 76(3): 676-677.
      • Willis, E. R. 1966. Biology and behaviour of Panchlora irrorata, a cockroach adventive on bananas (Blattaria: Blaberidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 59(3): 515-516.
      • Willis, E. R. 1969. Bionomics of three cockroaches (Latiblattella) from Honduras. Biotropica, 1(2): 41-46.
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      • Wright, C. G. 1979. Life history of the smokeybrown cockroach. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society, 14(1): 69-75.
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      a22

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      a22
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      spec.
      • 529 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      a23

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      a23
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      spec.
      • 483 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      69

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      069
      Culture Status: 
      C
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      femapterus Roth
      • 850 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      83

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      083
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      nigra
      • 858 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      35

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      035
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      indicus
      • 880 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      17

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      017
      Culture Status: 
      C
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      surinamensis
      edwbaker's picture

      17a

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      017a
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      spec. = surinamensis
      • 849 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      17b

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      017b
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      spec. = surinamensis
      • 852 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

      edwbaker's picture

      17c

      Edited by Anonymous on Fri, 25/09/2009 - 11:02am
      BCG Number: 
      017c
      Culture Status: 
      T
      Genus: 
      Pycnoscelus
      Species: 
      spec. = surinamensis
      • 846 reads

      • Blattodea SpeciesFile 29/09/2009: Pycnoscelus

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      The Blattodea culture Group (BCG) is a worldwide group of cockroach enthusiasts and amateur and professional entomologists. As well as content generated by the Group this site uses a taxonomy provided by the Blattodea SpeciesFile to display information from numerous resources on one page (use the Taxonomy Search or browse the cockroach taxonomy.

      The Group publishes a full colour journal, Cockroach Studies, which is distributed to members. Members of the group also have access to free livestock (for a list of species that have been in culture see the BCG Culture List) and are able to attend the Group's meetings.

      The BCG also runs The Cockroach Forum, an online discussion board for all things to do with cockroaches.

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